生物代写 作业代写 paper代写 essay代写

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生物代写 作业代写 paper代写 essay代写 Classical biological control is the introduction of a biological control agent in the ecosystem as a way

Describe the theory behind classical biological control

Classical biological control is the introduction of a biological control agent in the ecosystem as a way of finding a solution to a particular ecological imbalance particularly in pest control (Heimpel & Cock, 2018). The main objective of the classical biological control is to establish a balance where a particular organism is thriving in the absence of natural enemy perhaps because it migrated without it.

This theory is mainly used in parasitology but also used in microbial pathogens, predators and nematodes to reduce the population of a specific organism. The main target of biological control includes insects, mites and weeds. Although biological control is natural control which maintains population in an ecosystem, sometime the population of a particular biotic and abiotic organism might go beyond the limit most due to lack of predators.生物代写 作业代写 paper代写 essay代写

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How are modes of dispersal related to the environmental requirements of an organism?

Using plant seeds as an example, describe some advantages of zoochoric dispersal over other modes of dispersal.

Dispersal is the movement and migration of organisms and as a result of the breeding of organisms from one area to another (Burgess, Baskett, Grosberg, Morgan, & Strathmann, 2016). The mode of dispersal depends on the type of organism. Dispersal is used to regulate population size and density of organism in a specific area. The environmental requirement of an organism determines the mode used. For instance, animals migrate from a high-density area to a lower density area as a way of reducing competition in breeding and foods as well as reducing inbreeding. Plants that depend on animals for dispersal most grow in strategic environments where they can be attached to the animals. Similarly, those dependent on water for dispersal grows near water bodies. Notably, organisms develop characteristic suited to a particular mode of dispersion.生物代写 作业代写 paper代写 essay代写

Moreover, zoochoric dispersion has three main advantages over other modes of dispersion (Evstigneev, Korotkov, Murashev, & Voevodin, 2017; Trolliet, Forget, Doucet, Gillet, & Hambuckers, 2017). Animal dispersion can be a way of protecting the seed from other predator and hence reduce the population near the parent plant. Some seeds need to break dominancy, and endozoochory helps in breaking it. Most importantly is that it can allow colonisation of a new region as some animals like birds move long distances.

Name and describe three important mutualisms in post-disturbance environments.  Include in your answer to how the mutualism increases the niche breadth of each organism involved.

Mutualism is the relationship between organisms where each benefit (Bronstein, 2015). Mutuality can take the form of obligate-obligate, obligate-facultative and facultative-facultative. Facultative mutualist is where both organisms continue to reproduce in the absence of mutualist (Cropp & Norbury, 2018). Obligate mutualist is where the population of the organisms would go extinct in the absence of mutualist (2018).生物代写 作业代写 paper代写 essay代写

Since each organism can survive independently in Facultative mutualist but benefits both to remain together, the organism can increase its niche breath through resource-resource mutualism and service-resource mutualism. For instance, the mutualism between algae and corals in which algae nutrients from the corals and coral get sugar from algae — another example mutuality between honeybee and flowers. The honey gets resources in the form of nectar while the flower receives services in the way of pollination. Similarly, in obligate mutualist, since the organism cannot survive without each other, they increase their niche breadth by serving and supporting each other — for instance, ants and acacia tree. Ants get food and shelter from acacia while ants defend the plant from herbivores.

Mutualism is defined as benefiting both parties in a relationship. However, some mutualisms may be detrimental to plants. Explain how a symbiont could be both a benefit and a detriment to a plant.

A symbiotic relationship exists where the organism benefits but there are others where one organism does not benefit, but rather the mutuality becomes detrimental (Zeilinger et al., 2015). Symbiont benefits plants provide support, food and shelter — for instance, mycorrhizas which have symbiotic relationships with some fungi and the plant's roots. The fungi help the plant to get nutrients and water while it benefits with sugars from the plant. However, sometimes symbiotic relationships can be detrimental to the plants notably in parasitic symbiotic relationships. In a symbiotic relationship, the plant host gives signs of decreased growth rates, fecundity or lethality. For instance, Colletotrichum Magna has Sinp + Ihp infection characteristic in watermelon fruits.生物代写 作业代写 paper代写 essay代写

Describe the historical fire regime that likely occurred in Ponderosa Pine forests along the Front Range of Colorado. What has changed, if anything, and what problems have arisen because of it?

There are nine fires which have burned down the Colorado Front Range since 2002. These fires were dangerous and complicated interfaces that led to the death of many firefighters and residents as well as the destruction of large portions of the forest. The cause of the fire was mostly blamed on the dense forest as a result of aggressive fire-suppression since the early 1900s (Rother & Veblen, 2016).

The thick forest cover made the forest prone to severe fires when they occur. However, some areas were affected more than others thus changing the shape of the forest (Battaglia, Gannon, Brown, Fornwalt, Cheng, & Huckaby, 2018). The areas affected the most caused death of high canopy and hence loss of seed sources which resulted in opening woodlands. In moderately burned areas, the canopy was low, and they have the possibility of regeneration with suitable climatic conditions. Whereas areas which were not destroyed by the fire and have remained intact with closed canopies. Generally, the shape of the forest changed with the effects of fire.生物代写 作业代写 paper代写 essay代写

What is a compounding disturbance? Give an example (ecosystem and disturbances) and how this compares to a repeat disturbance or interacting disturbance (not necessarily compounding)?

Compounding disturbance is aggregating the effect of wildfire, clearcutting and prescribed burning which are associated with divergence in forest traits. As such, compounding disturbance is the effects of repeated destruction of forest communities. For instance, when wildfire had repeatedly destroyed Canadian boreal forest which is dominated by jack pine, the pines have developed a mechanism to survive a fire or being destroyed by fire (Brandt, Flannigan, Maynard, Thompson, & Volney, 2013). However, the resilience of boreal forest to wildfire is different from that created by disturbance from clearcutting.

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References生物代写 作业代写 paper代写 essay代写

Bronstein, J. L. (Ed.). (2015). Mutualism. Oxford University Press, USA.

Brandt, J. P., Flannigan, M. D., Maynard, D. G., Thompson, I. D., & Volney, W. J. A. (2013). An introduction to Canada’s boreal zone: ecosystem processes, health, sustainability, and environmental issues. Environmental Reviews, 21(4), 207-226.

Battaglia, M. A., Gannon, B., Brown, P. M., Fornwalt, P. J., Cheng, A. S., & Huckaby, L. S. (2018). Changes in forest structure since 1860 in ponderosa pine-dominated forests in the Colorado and Wyoming Front Range, USA. Forest Ecology and Management, 422, 147-160.

Burgess, S. C., Baskett, M. L., Grosberg, R. K., Morgan, S. G., & Strathmann, R. R. (2016). When is dispersal for dispersal? Unifying marine and terrestrial perspectives. Biological Reviews, 91(3), 867-882.生物代写 作业代写 paper代写 essay代写

Cropp, R., & Norbury, J. (2018). Goby–shrimp mutualism: Costs and benefits of obligate versus facultative strategies. Ecological Complexity, 36, 22-29.

Evstigneev, O. I., Korotkov, V. N., Murashev, I. A., & Voevodin, P. V. (2017). Zoochory and peculiarities of forest community formation: A review. Russian Journal of Ecosystem Ecology.

Heimpel, G. E., & Cock, M. J. (2018). Shifting paradigms in the history of classical biological control. BioControl, 63(1), 27-37.

Rother, M. T., & Veblen, T. T. (2016). Limited conifer regeneration following wildfires in dry ponderosa pine forests of the Colorado Front Range. Ecosphere, 7(12).

Trolliet, F., Forget, P. M., Doucet, J. L., Gillet, J. F., & Hambuckers, A. (2017). Frugivorous birds influence the spatial organization of tropical forests through the generation of seedling recruitment foci under zoochoric trees. Acta Oecologia, 85, 69-76.

Zeilinger, S., Gupta, V. K., Dahms, T. E., Silva, R. N., Singh, H. B., Upadhyay, R. S., ... & Nayak S, C. (2015). Friends or Foes? Emerging insights from fungal interactions with plants. FEMS microbiology reviews, 40(2), 182-207.生物代写 作业代写 paper代写 essay代写

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描述经典生物控制背后的理论
经典的生物防治是在生态系统中引入生物防治剂，以寻求解决特定生态失衡的解决方案的方法，特别是在虫害控制方面（Heimpel＆Cock，2018）。经典生物防治的主要目标是建立一种平衡，使特定生物在没有天敌的情况下蓬勃发展，这也许是因为它没有它就迁移了。该理论主要用于寄生虫学，但也用于微生物病原体，捕食者和线虫，以减少特定生物的种群。生物防治的主要目标包括昆虫，螨虫和杂草。尽管生物控制是自然控制，可以维持生态系统中的种群，但有时由于缺乏掠食者，特定生物和非生物有机体的种群数量可能会超出限制。
扩散方式与生物体的环境要求有何关系？
以植物种子为例，描述了动物滴虫散布相对于其他散布方式的一些优势。
分散是生物体的移动和迁移，是生物体从一个区域繁殖到另一个区域的结果（Burgess，Bakett，Grosberg，Morgan和Strathmann，2016年）。传播方式取决于生物体的类型。分散用于调节特定区域内生物的种群规模和密度。生物体的环境要求决定了所使用的模式。例如，动物从高密度区域迁移到低密度区域，以减少繁殖和食物竞争以及减少近亲繁殖。大部分依赖动物传播的植物都生长在可以与动物依附的战略环境中。同样，那些依靠水进行扩散的生物生长在水体附近。值得注意的是，生物发展出适合于特定分散模式的特征。
此外，与其他分散模式相比，动物群分散具有三个主要优势（Evstigneev，Korotkov，Murashev和Voevodin，2017年; Trolliet，Forget，Doucet，Gillet和Hambuckers，2017年）。动物分散可以是保护种子免受其他捕食者侵害并因此减少亲本植物附近种群的一种方式。一些种子需要打破主导地位，而内吞有助于打破主导地位。最重要的是，它可以允许在某些区域（例如鸟类）长距离移动时在新区域定居。
命名并描述骚扰后环境中的三个重要的共生关系。在您的答案中包括互惠关系如何增加所涉及的每种生物的利基宽度。
互惠关系是生物体之间的关系，每个生物体都会受益（Bronstein，2015）。相互关系可以采取专性专心，专性兼职和兼职兼职的形式。兼性互惠主义者是在没有互惠主义者的情况下两种生物继续繁殖的地方（Cropp＆Norbury，2018）。专心的互惠主义者是在没有互惠主义者的情况下生物种群将灭绝的地方（2018）。由于每个有机体都可以在兼职共存主义中独立生存，但同时又有利于两者在一起，因此该有机体可以通过资源-资源共存和服务-资源共存来增加自身的利基气息。例如，藻类与珊瑚之间的相互关系，其中珊瑚和藻类中的藻类营养物质从藻类中获取糖分–蜜蜂与花朵之间的相互关系的另一个例子。蜂蜜以花蜜的形式获取资源，而花以授粉的方式获得服务。类似地，在专制的互惠主义者中，由于有机体彼此之间无法生存，因此它们通过相互服务和相互支持（例如，蚂蚁和相思树）来增加自身的利基宽度。蚂蚁从相思中获取食物和庇护所，而蚂蚁则从草食动物中保护植物。
互惠互利被定义为在关系中使双方都受益。但是，某些共生关系可能对植物有害。解释共生体对植物既有好处又有危害。
在一种生物受益的地方存在共生关系，但在另一种生物不受益的情况下却存在共生关系，相反，相互之间是有害的（Zeilinger等人，2015）。共生植物有益植物提供支持，食物和庇护所，例如，菌根与某些真菌和植物根系有共生关系。真菌可以帮助植物获取营养和水分，同时还可以吸收植物中的糖分。但是，有时共生关系可能对植物有害，特别是在寄生共生关系中。在共生关系中，植物宿主表现出生长速度，繁殖力或致死率降低的迹象。例如，Magletotrichumum Magna在西瓜果实中具有Sinp + Ihp感染的特征。
描述沿颜色前沿范围的美国黄松森林可能发生的历史火灾

阿多发生了什么变化（如果有的话），以及由此引起的哪些问题？
自2002年以来，共有9场大火烧毁了科罗拉多前线山脉。这些大火是危险且复杂的界面，导致许多消防员和居民丧生，并破坏了森林的大部分。自1900年代初以来，积极抑制火灾的结果是，火灾原因主要归咎于茂密的森林（Rother和Veblen，2016年）。浓密的森林覆盖使森林在发生大火时易于生猛。但是，某些地区受到的影响大于其他地区，从而改变了森林的形状（Battaglia，Gannon，Brown，Fornwalt，Cheng和Huckaby，2018年）。该地区受影响最严重的原因是高树冠死亡，因此种子来源的损失导致林地开阔。在中度燃烧的地区，树冠较低，并且有可能在适当的气候条件下进行再生。那些没有被大火破坏并保持封闭盖的地方完好无损。通常，森林的形状随着火的影响而改变。
什么是复合干扰？举个例子（生态系统和干扰），它与重复干扰或相互作用干扰（不一定是复合干扰）相比如何？
加剧的干扰加剧了野火，伐木和规定的焚烧的影响，这些影响与森林性状的差异有关。因此，加剧的干扰是森林社区反复遭到破坏的结果。例如，当野火屡次破坏了以杰克·派恩（Jack pine）为主的加拿大北方森林时，松树就建立了一种机制，使其能够在大火中生存或被大火摧毁（Brandt，Flannigan，Maynard，Thompson和Volney，2013年）。但是，北方森林对野火的抵抗力与砍伐带来的干扰所产生的抵抗力不同。

References

Bronstein, J. L. (Ed.). (2015). Mutualism. Oxford University Press, USA.

Brandt, J. P., Flannigan, M. D., Maynard, D. G., Thompson, I. D., & Volney, W. J. A. (2013). An introduction to Canada’s boreal zone: ecosystem processes, health, sustainability, and environmental issues. Environmental Reviews, 21(4), 207-226.

Battaglia, M. A., Gannon, B., Brown, P. M., Fornwalt, P. J., Cheng, A. S., & Huckaby, L. S. (2018). Changes in forest structure since 1860 in ponderosa pine-dominated forests in the Colorado and Wyoming Front Range, USA. Forest Ecology and Management, 422, 147-160.

Burgess, S. C., Baskett, M. L., Grosberg, R. K., Morgan, S. G., & Strathmann, R. R. (2016). When is dispersal for dispersal? Unifying marine and terrestrial perspectives. Biological Reviews, 91(3), 867-882.

Cropp, R., & Norbury, J. (2018). Goby–shrimp mutualism: Costs and benefits of obligate versus facultative strategies. Ecological Complexity, 36, 22-29.

Evstigneev, O. I., Korotkov, V. N., Murashev, I. A., & Voevodin, P. V. (2017). Zoochory and peculiarities of forest community formation: A review. Russian Journal of Ecosystem Ecology.

Heimpel, G. E., & Cock, M. J. (2018). Shifting paradigms in the history of classical biological control. BioControl, 63(1), 27-37.

Rother, M. T., & Veblen, T. T. (2016). Limited conifer regeneration following wildfires in dry ponderosa pine forests of the Colorado Front Range. Ecosphere, 7(12).

Trolliet, F., Forget, P. M., Doucet, J. L., Gillet, J. F., & Hambuckers, A. (2017). Frugivorous birds influence the spatial organization of tropical forests through the generation of seedling recruitment foci under zoochoric trees. Acta Oecologia, 85, 69-76.

Zeilinger, S., Gupta, V. K., Dahms, T. E., Silva, R. N., Singh, H. B., Upadhyay, R. S., ... & Nayak S, C. (2015). Friends or Foes? Emerging insights from fungal interactions with plants. FEMS microbiology reviews, 40(2), 182-207.